International climate negociations

International negotiations on climate change are marked each year by the so called Conferences of the Parties (COP) under the aegis of the United Nations. They contributed to implement legal and economic instruments at the global scale for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG ) emissions and adapting to inevitable climate change.

Their first accomplishment was achieved in 1992 through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), known as the Climate Convention, which defined the principles of the international action against climate change. These principles were translated into concrete commitments to reduce GHG emissions for the first time at the international level in 1997, through the Kyoto Protocol.

The Kyoto Protocol’s first commitment period runs from 2008 to 2012 where a global cap is set for GHG * emissions of developed countries. It has involved the implementation of innovative mechanisms to ensure an equitable distribution of efforts at minimum economic cost. Since the “Bali Roadmap” conference of 2007, pursuing those objectives after 2012 has been at the heart of these negotiations.

Creating an acceptably equitable and effective international framework to succeed the Kyoto Protocol, supporting the development of nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) in countries, providing appropriate incentives and governance for financing mitigation in developing countries, avoiding deforestation, and delivering greater financing for adaptation in developing countries are all key issues in the current negotiations.

Further information:

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change website (UNFCCC*)
“Carbon markets: the simple facts”, Anaïs Delbosc and Christian de Perthuis, Caring for Climate Series, United Nations Global Compact Office, July 2009.

1. The United Nations Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

Adopted in 1992 at the Rio de Janeiro Summit, the UNFCCC * was the first international treaty to consider the danger caused by human activity to the climate.

Three principles were identified and accepted:

The precautionary principle: the scientific uncertainty with regard to the exact impact of climate change does not justify the postponing of measures to be taken.

The principle of common but differentiated responsibility: each signatory state recognises the impact of its own greenhouse gas emissions on global warming. The most industrialised countries have a greater historical responsibility due to their early industrial development which emitted large amounts of greenhouse gases.

The principle of the right to development: the actions are to be taken whilst respecting the economic development of each country.

The classification of countries therefore divides the world map into two: on one side, the “Annex I countries” (countries considered to be developed in 1990 and countries in transition towards an industrialised market-based economy), and on the other side, countries outside of Annex I (a.k.a. “non-Annex I countries” considered to be developing in 1990).

2. The Kyoto Protocol: binding targets for industrialized countries to reduce GHG* emissions

Adopted in 1997, the Kyoto Protocol came into force in 2005. It sets the objectives and the means of implementation of the principles of the UNFCCC*. For the first time, 39 most industrialised countries (listed in Annex B of the Protocol) are required to reduce their GHG emissions by at least 5% in comparison with the 1990 level between 2008 and 2012. Targets are differentiated amongst countries. The countries outside of Annex B (typically developing and emerging countries) do not have any reduction commitments.

To aid Annex B countries in achieving their reduction objectives, the Protocol includes three flexibility mechanisms:

1. Creation of an international carbon allowance. Each Annex B country receives a quantity of Assigned Amount Units (AAUs) equal to its reduction objective under the Kyoto Protocol. Countries can purchase or sell AAUs on the international market.
2. & 3.The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the Joint Implementation Mechanism (JI). They both allow countries, which would not have enough allowances to cover their own emissions, to use carbon credits coming from projects reducing emissions outside of their national territory.

Annex B countries are required to hold an amount of AAUs and other Kyoto carbon credits corresponding to their real emissions between 2008 and 2012 to be in compliance with their legal obligations under the Protocol.

The UNFCCC * Secretariat oversees the functioning of the system, creating the International Transaction Log (ITL). Each Annex B country is obligated to develop a standardized registry connected to the ITL.

Principles of a Cap and Trade System for Greenhouse gases under Kyoto Protocol

Source: CDC Climat.

3. The Copenhagen Accord

The most important objective of the (COP15) “Copenhagen summit” in December 2009 was to get an international agreement on how to effectively tackle climate change to take over when the current provisions of the Kyoto Protocol expire in 2012. At stake were ambitions to bring under the new agreement the USA and those countries undergoing rapid and economic development such as China, India and Brazil and South Africa (a.k.a. “the BASIC countries”). The BASIC countries now emit two times more GHG *s annually than Europe, Russia and Japan combined.

An agreement – known as the Copenhagen Accord – was achieved in Copenhagen, but for the first time technically outside of legal auspices of the United Nations. It specifically reiterated the principle of the 1992 Climate Convention and went further by specifying a target maximum allowable global average temperature rise of 2°C in comparison to pre-industrial era. More importantly, this new agreement went part of the way to widening the commitments for emission reductions beyond Annex I countries, to include, albeit on a voluntary basis, important developing countries. Thirdly, a financial commitment has been set: developed countries are called upon to provide 30 billions USD by 2012 to developing countries, to help them reduce their emissions and adapt to the effects of climate change. This amount should be raised to 100 billion USD a year by 2020.

UN negotiations, which took note of the Copenhagen Accord, will continue in 2010 and will end by the 16th Conference of the Parties at the Cancun summit, next December.